Part I: Literature Review

Oxford University Press. "First Evidence That Musical Training Affects Brain Development In Young Children." ScienceDaily, 20 Sep. 2006. Web. 3 Aug. 2011. <http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/09/060920093024.htm>.

The Canadian-based researchers measured changes in brain responses from two groups of children—those taking Suzuki music lessons and those taking no musical training outside of school—to investigate how musical training affected normal brain development. After one year the musically trained children performed better in a memory test that is correlated with general intelligence skills such as literacy, verbal memory, visiospatial processing, mathematics and IQ. This article provides clear evidence that music can have a significant effect on brain development.

Vauhn, Kathryn and Ellen Winner. “SAT Scores of Students Who Study the Arts: What We Can and Cannot Conclude about the Association.” The Journal of Aesthetic Education, Fall 2000, 34(3-4): 77-89.

The authors submitted a questionnaire to students indicating the number of years of arts classes they took or planned to take and compared their responses to verbal, math, and composite SAT scores to determine the relationship between SAT scores and the number of years of arts study, which SAT score is more strongly associated with studying the arts: the verbal or the math, and are the relationships stronger for different arts disciplines. The results of their experiment showed that (1) Students who take arts classes have higher math, verbal, and composite SAT scores than students who take no arts classes, (2) SAT scores increase linearly with the addition of more years of arts classes, (3) The strongest relationship with SAT scores was found with students who take four or more years of arts classes and (4) Acting classes had the strongest correlation with verbal SAT scores. Acting classes and music history, theory, or appreciation had the strongest relationship with math SAT scores. However, all classifications of arts classes were found to have significant relationships with both verbal and math SAT scores. This study provides substantial evidence of the influence of an arts education on composite sections of a standardized test and specific relationships to those sections.

Harland, John, Kay Kinder, Pippa Lord, Allison Stott, Ian Schagen, Joy Haynes, with Linda Cusworth, Richard White and Riana Paola. “Arts Education in Secondary Schools: Effects and Effectiveness.” National Education for Educational Research (NFER). The Mere, Upton Park, Slough Berkshire SL1 2DQ, UK, October 2000.

The authors sought to determine whether involvement in the arts boosted general academic performance in secondary schools and consisted of primarily a qualitative study based on student self-report, but also included a quantitative examination of the relationship between arts concentration in secondary school and performance on national exams. Case study results showed that performing well in at least one art form reported a wide range of positive effects from arts education including skills in the art form, enjoyment, relief of tension, learning about social and cultural issues, development of creativity and thinking skills, enriched expressive skills, self confidence, and personal and social development. This study provides evidence that students clearly perceived that the arts facilitate their personal and social development.

Hurley, Ryan. “Cuts In Arts Programs Leave Sour Note In Schools.” Wisconsin Education Association Council. 25 June 2004. <http://www.weac.org/news_and_publications/at_the_capitol/archives/2003-2004/arts.aspx>.

This article basically summarizes the cuts being made to arts education, the effects of cuts, programs that have been cut (specifically in Wisconsin) and how the arts impact academic performance. The critical piece of information that I will be citing from this article is the short statement Martin Rayala makes regarding the decrease in morale and attendance and increase in vandalism and disruptions.  

Maiers, Staci. “Education Cuts Strike a Sour Note.” 4 July 2011. National Education Association: Priority School Campaign. 2011. 4 August 2011. <http://neapriorityschools.org/2011/07/04/education-cuts-strike-a-sour-note/>.

This article discusses statistics regarding budget cuts made to arts education programs as a result of the lack of funding. This will provide the basis of my argument. 

Art Education in Detroit Public Schools. 4 August 2011 <http://sitemaker.umich.edu/art.education/our_solution>.

This website offers possible solutions to lack of funding for arts education in public schools. This will provide me with possible solutions for my proposal.

Hoffman, Kathy B. “ Rick Snyder Presents  $45 Billion Budget; Cuts to Education, Personal Tax Exemptions.” The Oakland Press on the Web 17 Feb 2011. 4 Aug 2011 <http://www.theoaklandpress.com/articles/2011/02/17/news/doc4d5d534aeca82215701842.txt?viewmode=fullstory>.

This article discusses the proposed budget for the 2011 fiscal year in Michigan. It includes proposed cuts in funding towards public education. This is will form a vital part of my argument.

Fusion

To this very day the musical genre of fusion remains one of the most controversial, divisive subjects amongst jazz musicians and music critics. According to critic Richard S. Ginell, “…by the old definition, fusion was a mixture of jazz improvisation and the rhythms, timbres and energy of rock music…a much tougher, more driving, and more abstract form than those that followed” (Ginell 1413). While Ginell’s definition is valid, I do not believe that is adequate due to the fact that it is loose enough for many artists to be placed in the fusion category. Therefore, to provide a clearer definition I suggest defining fusion through a variety of criteria: emphasis on improvisation, (generally) a strong backbeat, electric pianos, synthesizers, electric guitar, a consistent “groove” and jazz harmony. Without satisfying all of these criteria, an artist/band/song cannot be considered to be fusion.

                Over the course of the years, there has been a large amount of confusion as to what groups/artists belong under the fusion banner. Ginell agrees when he writes, “the term fusion has been erroneously expanded over the years to take in other forms that are more closely related to easy-listening pop or lightweight R&B—e.g., the Grover Washington Jr., Kenny G brand of instrumentals. Even the term jazz-rock was distorted to accommodate pop/rock groups in the late 1960s who added horns for flavoring (Blood, Sweat and Tears, Chicago, The Ides of March)” (1413). In other words, Ginell believes that far too many groups have been mislabeled as belonging to the fusion genre. I agree that Ginell correctly depicts that these groups have been mistakenly placed under the fusion genre. For example, the album Bitches Brew (1969) by trumpeter/bandleader Miles Davis (1926-1991) is credited by music critic Thom Jurek as “having virtually created the genre known as jazz-rock fusion” (312). This album exhibits characteristics that are completely different from the albums of groups like Spyro Gyra and the Yellowjackets, which some critics would argue fall under the category of fusion (Porter, Ullman and Hazell 393). Consequently, the need for criteria to define fusion is necessary.

                The first criterion that must be met is an emphasis on musical improvisation.  Author Ron Gorrow writes in his book Hearing and Writing Music: Professional Training for Today’s Musician, “Musical improvisation is the creative activity of immediate (“in the moment”) musical composition, which combines performance with communication of emotions and instrumental technique as well as spontaneous response to other musicians” (212). Based on my own experience as a jazz musician, I agree with this definition but would like to add my own: improvisation in music is the spontaneous expression and development of pre-conceived musical ideas over the course of a musical segment or an entire music composition. A prime example of improvisation in fusion would be the bassist Jaco Pastorious’s (1951-1987) composition, “Teen Town” off the 1976 Weather Report album Heavy Weather (Weather Report). After a short, angular melody, the bassist proceeds into a long improvisation which lasts for the remainder of the track.

                The second criterion that must be met is a “groove”. The most basic way of defining a groove is that it is a set of interlocking repetitive rhythmic/harmonic parts established by the rhythm section of a band (e.g. piano, guitar, bass, drums, etc.). Each instrument has its own separate part that locks together with the other members of the rhythm section and usually contains little to no improvisation. A song can consist of (usually no more than) two grooves or one groove repeated indefinitely. A prime example of a tune with a groove is “Chameleon” from the 1973 album Head Hunters by Herbie Hancock (1940-present). A two-bar melodic fragment over 4/4 time is played repeatedly by bassist Paul Jackson and Hancock on the ARP Odyssey Synthesizer, forming the majority of the piece. After a one minute break the piece forms a completely different groove and remains there for approximately five minutes before transitioning back into the original groove with a saxophone solo (Porter, Ullman and Hazell 384).

                The third criterion that must be met is the use of one of the three following instruments: an electric piano, synthesizer, electric guitar. An electric piano is basically a keyboard that utilizes a primitive pick-up system to amplify the sound made by its mechanical components. An example of a recording utilizing one of these keyboards would be “500 Miles High” by Return to Forever, featuring Chick Corea (1941-present) on the Fender Rhodes.  A synthesizer is essentially an electronic instrument that produces sound by generating electrical signals of varying frequency. “Chameleon” by Herbie Hancock features the use of ARP Odyssey and Soloist synthesizers. When referring to an electric guitar, I am chiefly referring to a solid-body electric guitar as opposed to its hollow and semi-hollow bodied counterparts. Al Di Meola (1954-present) is featured predominantly on the electric guitar on “Majestic Dance” off of Return to Forever’s Romantic Warrior (1976).

                The fourth criterion is a pronounced backbeat. A backbeat is an accent placed on the even beats (2 and/or 4) in 4/4 time. This sort of emphasis is evident on beat 4 of the main groove of “Sorceress” off of Return to Forever’s Romantic Warrior while Miles Davis’s ”Right Off” from A Tribute to Jack Johnson (1976) has emphasis on both beats 2 and 4.

                The last criterion and most complex criterion that must be met is the use of jazz harmony or melodic concepts. In order to understand what jazz harmony is, one must have a basic understanding of what harmony is. Harmony is essentially the use of simultaneous notes referred most often to as a chord. Typically, rock music and other styles utilize only triads (notes 1, 3 and 5 of a scale) and an occasional 7^th. Jazz harmony is different in that it utilizes the 9^th, 11^th and 13^th notes of a scale in both its chords and melodies making it sound quite different. One may only need to listen to the song “Butterfly” off of Herbie Hancock’s Thrust (1974) to hear minor 11^th chords. This is perhaps the most important of all the criteria, as it is unique to jazz.

                Utilizing these criteria, we will now examine Miles Davis’s recording of “Directions I”. Recorded on November 27^th, 1968 but not released until 1981, this recording features a strong drum part that emphasizes all four beats and a bass line doubled by Chick Corea on the Fender Rhodes that establishes a groove throughout most of the piece. After a jagged melodic introduction, Davis launches into his solo utilizing jazz harmony, specifically a “whole-tone” scale (Belden). Thus, “Directions I” is a perfect example of a fusion recording, containing all of the criteria necessary.

                With these criteria in place, I believe that I have created an adequate definition of fusion. However, some criteria are less important than others. The album Light As A Feather (1972) by Return to Forever utilizes Brazilian rhythms and as a result no backbeat is present. Nevertheless, many including myself would still consider this to be a definitive fusion album, as it meets all of the aforementioned criteria. In conclusion, there is not one definition or set of criteria that perfectly captures what fusion is.

               

               

               

                                               

               

               

Bibliography

Ginell, Richard S. "Jazz-Fusion (Jazz-Rock)." All Music Guide to Jazz: The Definitive Guide. Ed. Vladimir Bogdanov, Stephen Thomas Erlewine and Chris Woodstra. 3rd Edition. San Franscisco: Backbeat Books, 2002. 1413.

Gorrow, David. Hearing and Writing: Professional Training for Today's Musician. 2nd Edition. Gardena: September Publishing, 2002.

Jurek, Thom. "Bitches Brew." All Music Guide to Jazz: The Definitive Guide. Ed. Vladimir Bogdanov, Stephen Thomas Erlewine and Chris Woodstra. 3rd Edition. San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 2002.

Porter, Lewis, Michael Ullman and Ed Hazell. Jazz: From Its Origins to the Present. Ed. Jordan Ochs, Ed Therien and Lee Mamunes. Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall, 1993.

Weather Report. "Teen Town." Heavy Weather. By Jaco Pastorious. Prod. Joe Zawinul, Jaco Pastorious and Wayne Shorter. New York: Sony Music Entertainment Inc., 1997.

Belden, Bob. Liner notes. The Complete In A Silent Way Sessions. Sony Music Entertainment Inc., 2001. 

Jazz and the Fender Rhodes

I have always thought of myself as an individual who doesn’t fit into a particular mold. Conservative, liberal, jock, hipster, etc.—none of these labels fit me. Even the clothes I wear do not place me in any specific category. The only label that I will agree with (but not limit myself to) is that I am a jazz musician. As I was thinking about the impact that technology has had upon jazz I remembered the Fender Rhodes located in my house’s basement. This electric keyboard (invented in 1965) along with several others was used extensively by jazz artists during the late 1960s. Since then, the Rhodes has had an extremely strong impact upon the culture and definition of jazz music to this very day.

            To begin, prior to the invention of the Fender Rhodes in 1965, jazz was primarily performed and recorded using acoustic instrumentation (save for the occasional amplified hollow-body guitar or organ). With the invention of the Rhodes new sonic capabilities were achieved. Many pianists such as Chick Corea and Herbie Hancock began to experiment with devices such as the Echoplex, Bode Ring Modulator and various “wah” pedals to achieve new textures on the instrument. With a Rhodes at his home, trumpeter/band leader Miles Davis’s compositions reflected the sound of the instrument. The music evokes an ethereal atmosphere, dominated by abstract motifs and colors. Gone are the familiar straight 4/4 swing rhythm patterns that dominated jazz up until this point; instead, the music seemingly floats freely at times with meter switching every bar. This music eventually came to be known as early fusion. Thus, fusion pushed the boundaries of what was and is considered jazz.

In addition, the Fender Rhodes redefined the acceptable venue for a jazz performance. Jazz was the music of clubs, bars, festivals and concert halls up until the mid to late 1960s. However, in the mid-sixties this began to change as historian and critic Bob Belden explains:

            The state of the jazz world at large also began to shrink. Work had declined as club after club was shuttered by audience indifference (as well as the physiological aftereffects of the inner city riots). Cities that once had vibrant jazz scenes saw performance opportunities wither….There were still neighborhood bars in some major cities, but they could not afford the fees that an artist like Miles Davis was charging (Belden).

In late 1967 to early 1968 Miles Davis recorded several tracks utilizing the electric harpsichord and Wurlitzer electric piano on compositions such as “Water On The Pond” and “Fun”. This signified the beginning the beginning of a change in direction although Miles didn’t return to this sound until mid 1968, when he recorded “Stuff” with Herbie Hancock on the Fender Rhodes. From then on he began to exclusively use electric pianos in the studio and on the road (specifically the Rhodes). This change in instrumentation would forever redirect the sound of Miles Davis and jazz. Besides the practical reasons at the time (most acoustic pianos in clubs were unreliable by this point), the instrument opened the door to performances at such rock venues as the Fillmore East and Fillmore West (in New York and San Francisco respectively). At the time, these venues were dominated by performers such as Eric Clapton, Neil Young and the Allman Brothers Band, whose high volume performances filled these former ballrooms. The high volume capabilities of the Rhodes (in addition to the electric guitars of John McLaughlin) made it possible for Miles to compete in this atmosphere.

 In turn, performances at these venues began to draw in new types of listeners. Miles was primarily concerned with reaching the black youth culture of the time and performances at these venues pulled them in. At the same time, Miles risked alienating his former fan base that was perfectly fine with the standards and acoustic instrumentation that was present in his music prior to this point. While he did lose those fans, he gained many new ones.

In conclusion, the Fender Rhodes has had a strong impact upon the development, definition and culture of jazz. Even to this very day the Rhodes is used extensively by modern jazz groups. The Chris Potter Underground, One For All and Dave Douglas are just some of the jazz artists that utilize the Rhodes. In addition, there have been many artists of different genres (John Legend, Elton John, Billy Joel, Stevie Wonder) that have incorporated the use of the Rhodes into their music. 

Modern Jazz: Technology's Impact

I have always thought of myself as an individual who doesn't really fit into any sub-culture. Conservative, Liberal, Jock, Hipster, etc.: not one of these categories seem to perfectly sum up who I am as an individual. Even my sense of style doesn't fit into a specific category. The only label that I will agree with (but not limit myself to) is that I am a jazz modern jazz musician. With jazz being such a diverse form of music that is constantly expanding it almost defies definition. This in turn is a reflection of the actual persons that the jazz culture is composed of. The characteristic that is central to jazz music is improvisation. Generally, jazz musicians value the technique of improvisation more than any other and it is present in their music. They also have a profound amount of respect for the jazz musicians that came before them spending countless hours listening, imitating and practicing. It's quite common that jazz musicians will hold jam sessions at their houses or clubs with other musicians - many times playing with other musicians that they have never met nor played with before. Other than that, there is a large amount of diversity within the community. Black, Caucasian, Hispanic, etc.; anyone of any race is capable of being a jazz musician and like most cultures, jazz music has been impacted heavily by advancements in technology.


One of the results of these advancements was the invention of various electronic keyboards during the mid 1950s to the early 1970s. During this era many keyboards were produced; the most famous being the Wurlitzer Electronic Keyboard, the Fender Rhodes, the Minimoog and the Hohner D6 Clavinet. Many jazz musicians began using experimenting with these instruments in the late 1960s, such as Miles Davis, Chick Corea and Herbie Hancock. These experiments led to the development of a sub-genre of jazz known today as fusion. In addition to fusion, these keyboards are employed in modern jazz by such artists as Chris Potter, Brad Mehldau, the jazz sextet One for All and others. I plan on further examining how exactly the use of these instruments came to be used in the jazz field and how they have affected the composition/performance of jazz musicians since.

Straight, No Chaser: a Rhetorical Analysis

During the mid 1980s, there was a resurgence of jazz spearheaded by the efforts of Wynton Marsalis that created the “Young Lions” movement. In turn, many filmmakers began producing motion pictures and documentaries focusing on jazz and its musicians. Charlotte Zwerin’s biopic documentary, Thelonious Monk: Straight, No Chaser released in 1988 (produced by Clint Eastwood), is a prime example of one of these aforementioned films. Using a variety of rhetorical techniques, Zwerin’s film re-evaluates the style and musical significance of Monk to jazz musicians and critics alike.

            The main rhetorical device present in Zwerin’s film is the extensive use of stock footage of Monk from 1967-1968. Filmed by Christian Blackwood and unreleased publicly for 20 years, these performances, rehearsal, “meandering of Monk”, etc. capture Thelonious Monk during the apex of his creativity (he recorded seven separate albums worth of material during the two years in which the footage was shot). These performances don’t just showcase Monk’s innovative approach to the piano; they also present his ability to compose masterpieces (“Straight, No Chaser,” “Crepuscule with Nellie,” “I Mean You,” etc.) as well as re-interpret the American standard songbook (“Don’t Blame Me,” “Ask Me Now,” “I Should Care”, etc.). Many of Monk’s pieces have become staples at jam sessions performed in jazz clubs across the country (try walking into a jam session not knowing “Round Midnight”). Ultimately, the music presented in the footage paints an eccentric genius whom eventually was acknowledged by a large part of the jazz community as one of the greatest innovators in his field.

The film lends itself a sense of credibility and emotional appeal through the commentary present in-between the tour footage from 1967-1968. Zwerin conducted more recent interviews with Monk’s son Thelonious Monk Jr., his European road manager Bob Jones, Monk’s longtime manager Harry Colomby and his friend the Baroness Nica de Koenigswarter. Throughout these interviews we learn that Monk was still an enigma to his closest friends. Several of the interviewees mention repeatedly how Monk would “close-up” and was hospitalized many times for mental illness. Mysteriously enough, no one knows the exact illness that Monk suffered from. Thelonious Monk Jr. describes how frightening it was to “look your father in the eyes and realize that he doesn’t quite know who you are” but recounts his mother reminding him it’s the family’s responsibility for Monk, despite his mental illness. The interview with Monk’s longtime manager Harry Colomby describes the “Black” community’s expressions of pride, independence and strength that were embodied in the music of Thelonious Monk and others during the bebop era of the 1940s. Colomby also describes the way in which Monk calmly conducted himself during the filming of “The Sound of Jazz,” a live television broadcast on CBS in 1957 featuring performances by Monk, Billie Holiday and others. These interviews (along with the interviews of Bob Jones) paint a picture of Monk as a credible individual who had an enormous impact on the jazz scene during his lifetime and continues to have an impact to this day.

An appeal to ethos is also apparent in the numerous photographs, album and magazine covers featured and discussed in Zwerin’s film. As early as 1934 Monk was hired by the already famous “father” of the tenor saxophone Coleman Hawkins. Several pictures of the two of them are present in the beginning of the film accompanied by the earliest recording by Hawkins featuring Monk in the background. In addition, there are numerous photographs of Monk with others pioneers of the bebop movement such as Dizzy Gillespie and Charlie Parker, as well as photographs of later innovators (John Coltrane, Sonny Rollins, etc.). The collage of Monk’s album covers infuse within the audience a sense of credibility through the shear amount of output of material by Monk during his lifetime (and these aren’t even all of his albums). And then there’s the painting of Monk on the cover of Time Magazine in December, 1964. The fact that Monk is the fourth of only four jazz musicians (at the time of the filming of this documentary) to be on the cover of Time Magazine since the magazine’s first publication in 1923 is impressive enough to consider him an important figure in the development of jazz. Since then, the only other jazz icon present on the cover is Wynton Marsalis, who appeared on the cover in 1990 (two years after the release of this film).

In conclusion the efforts of Charlotte Zwerin, Christian Blackwood and Clint Eastwood, Thelonious Monk: Straight, No Chaser effectively portrays the importance and influence that Thelonious Monk has had upon the history of jazz in the past and present. Even to this day many critics state that his music still seems to be fresh, invigorating; full of knowledge and wit. Who knows how long it will be before stylistic devices present in his music will cease to have an impact upon the language of jazz, or how the present language would be different if we didn’t have Thelonious Monk. 

This Week

I have to admit: I'm not the biggest fan of "Zombie movies". However: I did enjoy "The Diary of the Dead". I thought the portrayal of the media and Jason Creed's roles in the plot were interesting: specifically how the media was attempting to cover up the severity of the outbreak and the only source of "true" news was through the Jason Creed's blogging site and videos. 

Similarities in Rhetoric and Music

In the middle of outlining a speech for my oral communications course this afternoon, I began to really understand the similar devices that are used in both speech and improvisation. One of the primary goals that is present in both speech and music is to tell a "story", so naturally the devices would be rather similar. Using this blogging site I plan on each week examining one similar characteristic. 


One of the devices that functions the same way in both formats is repetition. This device is used as a sort of "glue" to hold together the key points of both formats and gives the audience something that is simple to grasp on to.  A prime example of this is the word "we" in Barack Obama's "A More Perfect Union" speech in a literary context. One of the best examples of this in a musical improvisation is Sonny Rollin's saxophone solo on "St. Thomas", which begins at 0:55.